Infection vs infestation – understanding the key differences and similarities between these two terms

Infection and infestation are two terms often used interchangeably when discussing the spread and impact of parasites on human or animal bodies. However, it is important to understand that these two terms actually refer to different processes and require different approaches to treatment and prevention.

When we talk about infection, we are referring to the invasion and multiplication of pathogenic microorganisms within the body. These microorganisms, such as bacteria, viruses, or fungi, can cause a variety of diseases and often lead to various symptoms such as fever, fatigue, and inflammation. Infections can be transmitted from person to person through direct contact, inhalation, or ingestion of contaminated materials.

On the other hand, an infestation occurs when a parasite invades and establishes itself within the body or on the skin of a human or an animal. Unlike microorganisms that cause infections, parasites are organisms that rely on a host for survival. Common examples of parasites include lice, fleas, ticks, and worms. Infestations can cause symptoms such as itching, rash, and irritation.

Understanding the difference between infection and infestation is crucial for determining appropriate treatment strategies and prevention measures. While infections often require medication such as antibiotics or antiviral drugs to eliminate the invading microorganisms, infestations are typically managed through the use of specific therapies or products designed to target and remove the parasites. Additionally, prevention strategies for infections may involve vaccination, hygiene practices, and safe food handling, while preventing infestations often requires measures such as regular cleaning, pest control, and minimizing contact with infested individuals or environments.

Infection: Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment

Infection is a condition caused by the invasion of harmful microorganisms, such as bacteria or viruses, into the body. These microorganisms enter the body through various means, including inhalation, ingestion, or direct contact with an infected person or object.

Symptoms of an infection vary depending on the type of microorganism involved and the part of the body affected. Common symptoms include fever, fatigue, pain, inflammation, and the formation of pus. Other symptoms may include coughing, sneezing, diarrhea, nausea, and vomiting.

Treatment for infections usually involves the use of antibiotics, antiviral drugs, or antifungal medications to kill or inhibit the growth of the invading microorganisms. In some cases, supportive treatments such as fluids, rest, and pain relievers may also be recommended to alleviate symptoms.

Causes of infections can be attributed to a variety of factors. The most common cause is the transmission of pathogens from one person to another through direct or indirect contact. Pathogens can also be spread through contaminated food, water, or surfaces. Poor personal hygiene, a weakened immune system, and certain underlying medical conditions can increase the risk of infection.

Prevention of infections involves practicing good hygiene, such as regular handwashing, covering the mouth and nose when coughing or sneezing, and avoiding close contact with people who are sick. Vaccinations are also an important preventive measure, as they can protect against specific infections caused by viruses or bacteria.

Infection should not be confused with infestation, which is the invasion and colonization of parasites on or within the body. While infections are caused by microorganisms, infestations are caused by larger organisms such as lice, fleas, or ticks. The treatment for infestations usually involves the use of specific medications or physical removal of the parasites.

Infection Definition and Types

An infection is the invasion and multiplication of harmful microorganisms, such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, or parasites, in the body. These microorganisms can cause disease and lead to various symptoms and complications.

There are different types of infections, depending on the microorganism involved and the part of the body affected. Some common types of infections include:

• Bacterial infections: caused by bacteria, such as streptococcus or E. coli, and can affect various body systems.
• Viral infections: caused by viruses, such as influenza or the common cold, and can cause respiratory, gastrointestinal, or systemic symptoms.
• Fungal infections: caused by fungi, such as candida or athlete’s foot, and can affect the skin, nails, or internal organs.
• Parasitic infections: caused by parasites, such as malaria or lice, and can infest the body and organs, leading to various symptoms.

Infections can spread through various means, including direct contact with an infected person, contaminated food or water, inhaling airborne particles, or through insect bites. Once inside the body, the microorganisms can multiply and cause damage.

Treatment for infections usually involves the use of antibiotics, antiviral medications, antifungal drugs, or antiparasitic medications, depending on the type of infection and its severity. Prevention of infections can be achieved through good hygiene practices, vaccination, avoiding contact with infected individuals, and using insect repellents when necessary.

Symptoms of Infection

When it comes to understanding the difference between infection and infestation, knowing the symptoms of infection is crucial. Infection refers to the invasion and spread of harmful microorganisms in the body, leading to a disease or illness. Unlike infestation, which involves the presence and multiplication of parasites on or within the body, infection is caused by bacteria, viruses, fungi, or other pathogens.

The symptoms of infection can vary depending on the type of pathogen involved, the affected body part or system, and the individual’s overall health. Common symptoms of infection may include:

Fever

Elevated body temperature, or fever, is a common symptom of infection. The body raises its temperature to help fight off the invading pathogens.

Inflammation or Redness

Infection often leads to inflammation, which is the body’s response to the presence of harmful microorganisms. This can cause redness, swelling, and pain at the site of infection.

Other symptoms of infection may include fatigue, weakness, headache, cough, sore throat, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and muscle aches. It’s worth noting that the specific symptoms can vary significantly depending on the type and severity of the infection.

Treatment for infections typically involves the use of antibiotics, antiviral drugs, antifungal medications, or other specific treatments depending on the causative agent. Prevention of infection can be achieved through measures such as hand hygiene, vaccination, safe sexual practices, and avoiding contact with infected individuals or contaminated surfaces.

By understanding the symptoms of infection and the necessary treatment and prevention measures, individuals can better differentiate between infection and infestation and seek appropriate medical attention when needed.

Risk Factors and Prevention

Both infestation and infection are risks that individuals may face, and understanding these risks can help prevent the spread of disease. Infestations are typically caused by parasites, such as fleas, ticks, or lice, which can infest the body or living spaces. Infections, on the other hand, are caused by the invasion and multiplication of disease-causing microorganisms, such as bacteria or viruses, within the body.

There are several risk factors that can increase the likelihood of infestation or infection. For infestations, factors such as poor hygiene, crowded living conditions, or exposure to infested areas, can increase the risk. For infections, factors such as a weakened immune system, poor sanitation, or close contact with infected individuals can increase the risk.

Symptoms of infestation can vary depending on the type of parasite involved:

• Itching or irritation of the skin
• Rashes or allergic reactions
• Hair loss or thinning
• Visible presence of parasites or eggs

Preventing infestations and infections:

Prevention is crucial in reducing the risk of infestation or infection. Some preventive measures for infestations include:

• Maintaining good personal hygiene, such as regular bathing and washing clothes
• Keeping living spaces clean and free of clutter
• Regularly inspecting and treating pets and their living areas for parasites
• Using protective measures, such as insect repellent or bed netting, when in infested areas

To prevent infections, some recommended preventive measures include:

• Practicing good hand hygiene, such as washing hands frequently with soap and water
• Following proper food safety precautions, such as cooking food thoroughly and storing it properly
• Getting vaccinated to prevent certain infectious diseases
• Using barrier precautions, such as condoms, to reduce the risk of sexually transmitted infections

By understanding the differences between infestation and infection, as well as the risk factors and preventive measures associated with each, individuals can take proactive steps to protect themselves and others from the spread of disease.

Infestation: Understanding the Basics

Infestation is a condition caused by the presence and multiplication of parasites on or within a living organism. Unlike infections, which are caused by microorganisms such as bacteria and viruses, infestations are caused by larger organisms known as parasites.

Infestations can occur in various forms, depending on the type of parasite involved. Common examples include flea infestations in pets, head lice infestations in humans, or bed bug infestations in homes.

Symptoms of Infestation

The symptoms of an infestation can vary depending on the type of parasite. In general, common symptoms include itching, skin irritation, and the visible presence of the parasite or its eggs.

For example, in a flea infestation, pets may exhibit excessive scratching, hair loss, and flea dirt (tiny black specks) on their fur. In a head lice infestation, individuals may experience intense itching on the scalp and the presence of lice or nits (lice eggs) on the hair shafts.

Treatment and Prevention

Treating an infestation typically involves eliminating the parasites and their eggs. This often requires the use of specific medications or treatments designed to target the particular parasite involved.

Prevention of infestations involves taking appropriate measures to minimize the risk of exposure to parasites. This may include regular pet grooming, proper hygiene practices, and maintaining a clean living environment.

In comparison to infections, which can be transmitted through various means such as respiratory droplets or contaminated surfaces, infestations are typically spread through direct contact with the parasite or its eggs.

By understanding the basics of infestation, individuals can better recognize and address these conditions, ensuring the health and well-being of both themselves and their pets.

Infestation Causes and Types

An infestation occurs when a living organism, known as a parasite, invades and lives on or inside another organism. Unlike an infection, which is caused by infectious agents such as bacteria and viruses, an infestation is caused by external parasites, such as insects or mites.

There are various types of infestations, each with their own causes and symptoms. Some common types of infestations include:

• Bedbug infestations: Bedbugs are small, wingless insects that feed on the blood of humans and animals. They are commonly found in beds or other areas where people sleep or rest. Symptoms of a bedbug infestation include itching, red bite marks, and the presence of bedbugs or their eggs.
• Lice infestations: Lice are tiny insects that live on the scalp or body and feed on blood. They are most commonly spread through direct head-to-head contact or sharing personal items such as combs or hats. Symptoms of a lice infestation include itching, visible lice or eggs on the hair or clothing, and irritability.
• Flea infestations: Fleas are small, wingless insects that feed on the blood of animals and humans. They often infest pets, such as dogs and cats, and can also be found in carpets, bedding, and furniture. Symptoms of a flea infestation include itching, red bumps or welts, and the presence of fleas or their droppings.
• Scabies infestations: Scabies is a skin infestation caused by microscopic mites. It is highly contagious and can spread easily through close physical contact. Symptoms of a scabies infestation include intense itching, rash, and the presence of small, red bumps or blisters.

Treatment for infestations typically involves eliminating the parasites and preventing their spread. This may include using insecticides, washing infested clothing and bedding in hot water, vacuuming and cleaning infested areas, and seeking medical treatment if necessary.

It is important to differentiate between infestations and infections, as they require different treatment approaches. While infections are caused by infectious agents and may require antibiotics or antiviral medications, infestations are caused by parasites and require specific measures to eliminate and control the spread of the parasites.

In summary, infestations are caused by external parasites, such as insects or mites, and can lead to various symptoms and diseases. Understanding the difference between an infection and an infestation is crucial for proper diagnosis and treatment.

Symptoms of Infestation

Infestation, unlike infection, occurs when a host organism becomes overpopulated by a particular species of parasite. The symptoms of infestation can vary depending on the type of parasite involved and the location of the infestation. Here are some common symptoms to look out for:

1. Visible signs: One of the most obvious symptoms of infestation is the presence of visible signs on the host organism. These signs can include bites, rashes, welts, or even the presence of live parasites on the skin or in the hair.

2. Itching or irritation: Infestations often cause itching or irritation in the affected area. This can be due to the bites of the parasites or the release of chemical substances by the parasites that irritate the host’s skin or tissues.

3. Allergic reactions: Some individuals may experience allergic reactions to the parasites or their bites. This can manifest as redness, swelling, or hives in the affected area. In severe cases, it can even lead to anaphylaxis, a potentially life-threatening allergic reaction.

4. Physical symptoms: Depending on the location and extent of the infestation, physical symptoms may also arise. These can include hair loss, weight loss, fatigue, or even organ damage in severe cases.

5. Psychological symptoms: Infestations can also have psychological effects on the host organism. The constant presence of parasites and the associated symptoms can cause anxiety, depression, or other mental health issues.

6. Spread to others: Infestations can easily spread to other individuals in close contact with the affected host. This can occur through direct contact or through the sharing of personal items such as bedding, clothing, or combs.

Prevention is key when it comes to avoiding infestations. Taking proper hygiene measures, such as regular bathing, washing of clothes and bedding, and avoiding close contact with individuals who have known infestations, can help reduce the risk.

If an infestation is suspected, it is important to seek proper medical treatment. Depending on the type of parasite involved, treatment options can include topical or oral medications, environmental decontamination, or removal of the parasites or their eggs.

Preventing and Treating Infestation

Infestation occurs when a parasite invades and establishes itself in a host organism. Unlike an infection, which usually involves a disease-causing microorganism, an infestation is caused by a larger organism such as a tick, mite, or lice.

Recognizing the symptoms of an infestation is important for early detection and treatment. Common symptoms may include itching, rash, redness, or the presence of visible parasites on the skin or in the hair. It is crucial to seek medical attention if you suspect an infestation.

Treatment Options

The treatment of infestation often involves targeted approaches to eliminate the parasites and alleviate symptoms. Depending on the type of infestation, treatment may involve the use of topical creams, oral medications, or even physical removal of the parasites. It is important to follow the instructions provided by healthcare professionals and complete the full course of treatment to ensure the infestation is fully eradicated.

Prevention Strategies

Preventing infestations is key to avoiding the discomfort and potential health risks associated with an infestation. Here are some preventive measures you can take:

1. Maintain good personal hygiene by regularly washing and grooming yourself.
2. Keep your living environment clean and tidy.
3. Avoid sharing personal items such as towels, brushes, and combs.
4. Take precautions when traveling to areas known for infestations, such as using insect repellents and protective clothing.
5. Inspect and treat pets regularly for parasites to avoid their spread into your home.
6. Stay informed about common infestations in your area and take appropriate preventive measures.

By following these prevention strategies and being aware of the symptoms of infestation, you can reduce the risk of infestations and minimize their impact on your health and well-being.

The Difference Between Infection and Infestation

Infestation and infection are two terms commonly used when discussing diseases caused by parasites, but they have distinct differences. Understanding these differences can help in recognizing and properly treating these conditions.

Infestation refers to the presence and multiplication of parasites on or within a host organism. This can include various types of parasites such as insects, mites, or worms. Infestation is typically characterized by visible signs of the parasites on the host’s body or in the surrounding environment.

Infection, on the other hand, refers to the invasion and multiplication of pathogenic microorganisms within a host organism. These microorganisms can include bacteria, viruses, or fungi. Infection is often characterized by symptoms such as fever, pain, inflammation, or organ dysfunction.

While both infestation and infection involve the presence of parasites or microorganisms, the symptoms and consequences can differ. In infestations, the parasites may cause irritation, itching, or discomfort, but they often do not result in severe illness. Infections, on the other hand, can lead to the development of diseases that can range from mild to life-threatening.

Another important difference is the way these conditions spread. Infestations are typically spread through direct contact with the parasites or their eggs, or through contact with infested items or environments. Infections, on the other hand, are often spread through contact with infected individuals, exposure to contaminated objects or surfaces, or through airborne droplets.

Prevention and treatment strategies also differ for infestations and infections. Preventing infestations often involves measures such as maintaining good hygiene, using insect repellents, and avoiding contact with infested areas. Treating infestations may involve the use of topical treatments, medications, or insecticides.

Preventing and treating infections, on the other hand, typically involves measures such as vaccination, proper hand hygiene, and the use of antimicrobial medications. Treatment for infections may also include specific antiviral, antibacterial, or antifungal medications, depending on the causative microorganism.

In conclusion, while infestations and infections both involve the presence of parasites or microorganisms, they differ in terms of symptoms, consequences, spread, and prevention. Understanding these differences can help in effectively managing and addressing these conditions.

Understanding Infection vs Infestation

The spread of parasites can lead to both infection and infestation, but it is important to understand the difference between the two. While both may cause similar symptoms and require treatment, there are key differences in their nature and prevention methods.

Comparison:

Infestation refers to the invasion and colonization of parasites on or within a host organism. Common examples of infestations include lice, fleas, and bedbugs. These parasites rely on the host for their survival and reproduction, often causing discomfort and irritation to the host.

Infection, on the other hand, occurs when harmful microorganisms, such as bacteria or viruses, invade and multiply within the tissues of a host organism. Infections can affect different parts of the body and may result in a range of symptoms, depending on the type and severity of the infection.

Symptoms and Treatment:

The symptoms of infestations and infections can vary widely, but both may cause itching, redness, and irritation. In some cases, they can also lead to more serious health problems.

Treatment for infestations often involves the use of topical or oral medications to kill the parasites and alleviate symptoms. It may also require thorough cleaning and disinfection of the affected area or items.

Infections, on the other hand, may require specific medications, such as antibiotics or antiviral drugs, to target and eliminate the causative microorganisms. In some cases, supportive care, such as rest and hydration, may also be necessary to aid in recovery.

Prevention:

To prevent infestations, regular cleaning, hygiene practices, and avoiding contact with infested individuals or environments can be helpful. Additionally, using appropriate protective measures, such as insect repellents or bed covers, can reduce the risk of infestation.

Preventing infections involves practicing good hygiene, such as handwashing, maintaining a strong immune system through proper nutrition and regular exercise, and avoiding direct contact with infected individuals or their bodily fluids. Vaccinations can also provide protection against certain infectious diseases.

Comparison	Infestation	Infection
Definition	The invasion and colonization of parasites on or within a host organism	The invasion and multiplication of harmful microorganisms within the tissues of a host organism
Examples	Lice, fleas, bedbugs	Bacterial, viral infections
Symptoms	Itching, redness, discomfort	Varies depending on the type and severity
Treatment	Topical or oral medications, cleaning and disinfection	Specific medications (e.g., antibiotics, antiviral drugs), supportive care
Prevention	Regular cleaning, hygiene practices, avoiding contact with infested individuals or environments, using protective measures	Good hygiene, maintaining a strong immune system, avoiding direct contact with infected individuals or their bodily fluids, vaccinations

Causes of Infection and Infestation

Both infection and infestation are caused by different factors, although they may share similar symptoms and require different treatment approaches.

An infection is typically caused by the invasion and multiplication of microorganisms, such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, or parasites, within the body. These pathogens can enter the body through various means, including inhalation, ingestion, or contact with contaminated surfaces or bodily fluids. Once inside the body, they can cause disease by damaging cells, releasing toxins, or disrupting normal bodily functions. Infections can spread from person to person through direct or indirect contact, such as coughing, sneezing, or sharing contaminated objects.

On the other hand, an infestation occurs when an external parasite, such as lice, mites, ticks, or worms, takes up residence on or inside the body. These parasites rely on the host organism for survival, feeding on its tissues, blood, or other bodily fluids. Infestations commonly occur through direct contact with an infested person, animal, or environment. For example, head lice are often spread through close personal contact or sharing personal items like combs or hats.

Symptoms and Spread

While both infection and infestation can cause similar symptoms, such as itching, redness, and discomfort, the underlying causes differ. Infections are primarily caused by microorganisms and may result in a wide range of symptoms, depending on the specific pathogen and the affected body system. Common symptoms of infection include fever, fatigue, inflammation, pain, and organ dysfunction.

On the other hand, infestations are characterized by the presence of parasites in or on the body. The symptoms of infestation can vary depending on the type of parasite involved. For example, lice infestations may cause intense itching and the presence of small eggs (nits) on hair shafts, while tick infestations can lead to skin rashes and the risk of contracting tick-borne diseases.

In terms of spread, infections are often contagious and can easily pass from one person to another through various means. This can include direct contact, respiratory droplets, contaminated surfaces, or shared needles. In contrast, infestations are generally not contagious, although they can spread within a household or community under certain conditions, such as close personal contact or sharing infested belongings.

Treatment and Prevention

The treatment of infections and infestations differs depending on the specific causative agent. Infections are typically treated with medications, such as antibiotics, antivirals, antifungals, or antiparasitic drugs, depending on the type of pathogen involved. Treatment may also involve supportive care to relieve symptoms and boost the body’s immune response.

Infestations, on the other hand, often require specific treatments targeted at eliminating the parasites. This can include topical medications, such as creams, lotions, or shampoos, or oral medications. In some cases, physical removal of parasites may be necessary, such as using tweezers to remove ticks or manually removing lice or their eggs.

Prevention strategies for both infection and infestation often include practicing good hygiene, such as regular handwashing, avoiding contact with infected individuals or infested environments, and using appropriate protective measures, such as wearing gloves or insect repellent. Vaccinations are also available for some infectious diseases to prevent their occurrence.

Infection	Infestation
Caused by microorganisms (bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites)	Caused by external parasites (lice, mites, ticks, worms)
Spread through contact, respiratory droplets, contaminated surfaces, needles	Spread through direct contact, sharing personal items, close personal contact
Treated with antibiotics, antivirals, antifungals, or antiparasitic drugs	Treated with topical medications, oral medications, or physical removal
Prevented through good hygiene practices and vaccinations	Prevented through good hygiene practices and avoiding infested environments

Recognizing the Symptoms

Understanding the difference between infection and infestation is important in order to determine the appropriate treatment for a parasite or disease. Both may have similar symptoms, but there are some key differences in how they spread and can be prevented.

Signs of Infection

An infection occurs when a harmful organism such as a bacteria or virus enters the body and causes harm. Common symptoms of an infection may include:

• Fever
• Chills
• Fatigue
• Pain or discomfort
• Swelling or redness
• Discharge or pus

Infections can spread from person to person through direct contact, contaminated objects, or airborne droplets. It is important to seek medical attention for proper diagnosis and treatment of an infection.

Indications of Infestation

An infestation, on the other hand, occurs when a parasite or organism takes up residence in or on the body and causes harm. Some common symptoms of an infestation may include:

• Itching or irritation
• Rashes or redness
• Bites or stings
• Crawling sensations
• Visible parasites or eggs

Infestations can occur from exposure to contaminated environments, such as infested bedding or contact with an infested animal. Prevention is key in avoiding infestations, including regular cleaning, proper hygiene, and avoiding contact with known carriers.

While infection and infestation share some common symptoms, it is important to understand the differences in order to receive appropriate treatment and prevent further spread of the parasite or disease. Seek medical advice if you are experiencing any symptoms or suspect an infection or infestation.

Effective Treatment Options

When it comes to treating infections and infestations, there are several effective options available. However, the treatment would largely depend on the specific disease or parasite causing the infection or infestation. Below, we present a comparison of treatment options for infections and infestations, as well as some general prevention strategies.

Type	Treatment	Prevention
Infections	Treatment typically involves the use of antibiotics or antiviral medications to directly target and eliminate the disease-causing microorganisms. The specific medication and duration of treatment would be determined by the type and severity of the infection.	Prevention of infections involves practicing good hygiene, such as regularly washing hands, avoiding close contact with infected individuals, and keeping vaccinations up to date.
Infestations	Infestations are treated by targeting the parasitic organisms directly. This can include the use of topical or oral medications, such as insecticides or anthelmintics, to kill or remove the parasites from the body.	Prevention of infestations often involves taking preventive measures such as regularly cleaning and sanitizing living spaces, avoiding contact with infested individuals or environments, and using insect repellents when necessary.

In both cases, prompt and proper treatment is essential to effectively eliminate the infection or infestation and prevent the spread of the disease. It is crucial to consult a healthcare professional for accurate diagnosis and appropriate treatment options based on the individual’s symptoms and condition.

Question and answer:

What is the difference between infection and infestation?

Infection refers to the invasion of the body by harmful microorganisms, such as bacteria, viruses, or fungi, which results in a disease. Infestation, on the other hand, refers to the invasion of the body or living spaces by parasites, such as lice, fleas, or bed bugs, which cause irritation or damage.

Can an infection and an infestation occur at the same time?

Yes, it is possible for a person to have both an infection and an infestation at the same time. For example, a person with a bacterial skin infection may also have an infestation of mites or lice on the affected area. In such cases, both the infection and the infestation will need to be treated separately.

How can I prevent infections and infestations?

To prevent infections, it is important to practice good hygiene, such as washing hands regularly, covering your mouth and nose when coughing or sneezing, and avoiding close contact with people who are sick. To prevent infestations, you should keep your living spaces clean and free of clutter, regularly wash and vacuum bedding and furniture, and take precautions when traveling to areas known for infestations, such as using insect repellent in mosquito-prone areas.

Are infections and infestations more common in certain places or groups of people?

Infections can occur anywhere and affect people of all ages and backgrounds. However, certain factors, such as a weakened immune system or living in crowded or unsanitary conditions, can increase the risk of infection. Infestations, on the other hand, may be more common in places where there is a higher presence of the specific parasites, such as in areas with poor sanitation or among individuals who come into contact with infested animals.

What are some common symptoms of infections and infestations?

The symptoms of infections can vary depending on the type of microorganism involved, but common symptoms include fever, fatigue, sore throat, cough, and body aches. Infestations can cause symptoms such as itching, rash, visible parasites or their eggs on the body or in the living spaces, and in some cases, allergic reactions.

What is a infection?

An infection is a process in which harmful bacteria, viruses, or other microorganisms enter the body and cause illness or disease. Infections can be transmitted through various means, including contact with an infected person, ingestion of contaminated food or water, or exposure to infectious droplets in the air.

How can infections be prevented?

Infections can be prevented by practicing good hygiene, such as washing hands frequently with soap and water, using hand sanitizers when soap and water are not available, covering the mouth and nose when coughing or sneezing, avoiding close contact with sick individuals, and getting vaccinated against infectious diseases.